The Art of Public Speaking

U1 Speaking in Public

all walks of life 各行各业
useful skills and strategies 有用的技能和策略
multinational companies 跨国公司；跨国企业
all-round language ability 全面的语言能力
verbally 口头上地（而非书面地或行动上地）；用动词地；用言辞地

• Practical Benefits：

  • Enhance your confidence
  • Get rid of stage fright 怯场
  • To be a good speaker

• How to deal with nervousness?

  • Get prepared
  • Change your thinking
  • Face your fears
  • Take up more assignments
  • Trick your brain into believing
  • Believe in yourself
  • Get feedback

• Dealing with nervousness

  • Acquire Speaking Experience
  • Prepare, Prepare, Prepare
  • Think Positively
  • Use the power of Visualization
  • Know That Most Nervousness Is Not Visible
  • Don’t Expect Perfection

• What are the guidelines（指导方针，参考） for being ethical speakers?

  • Make sure that the goals for your speech is ethically sound.

  • Be fully prepared for each speech.

  • Use information that is truthful or be honest in what you say.

  • Put ethical principles into practice.

  • Avoid biases and stereotypes or show respect for your audience.

    ​ (模式化的思想，老一套；公式化人物；铅版，铅版浇铸，铅版印刷；v. 对……形成刻板的看法，（尤指）对……有成见；使用铅版)

  • Avoid name-calling(n. 骂人，中伤) and other forms of abusive language.

• Plagiarism and the Internet (抄袭与互联网)

  • Global Plagiarism 全盘剽窃
  • Patchwork Plagiarism 拼贴剽窃
  • Incremental Plagiarism 局部剽窃

  有两种方法可以避免局部剽窃。第一种方法是自己做调研笔记时要注意分清哪些是直接引语，哪些是复述的资料，哪些是自己的评论。第二种方法是多一些谨慎，再感到没有把握时，为稳妥起见，还是注明出处为好。

  –Quotation 引用

  使用引言时，一定要说明引言的出处。

  –Paraphrases 改述

  如果你没有直接引用某人的话，而是借鉴了某人的思路，并且使用了一部分原话，演讲者应该提供信息的来源。

U2 Warming-up

• Warming-up n. 准备活动；准备运动

  • Discussion
  • Prepare arguments for speeches 为演讲准备论据
  • Work out for your voice 锻炼你的声音

  SEE-l: Statement  Elaboration(细化,加工)  Example  Illustration
  - ​	Friendship is one of life’s great blessings.  生命的伟大的祝福
  - ​	Friendship is the result of long-term alliances.  这是长期联盟的结果
  - ​	Friendship is the opposite of solitude.  孤独的反义词
  - ​	Friendship is priceless -- and it can also be ageless.(永恒的) I used to 	form friendships based on 
  	how much we had in common. I didn't go so far as to check blood type or astrological sign检查血型或星座,but I certainlygravitated toward those who shared my tastes被和我	品味相同的人吸引 in music, food and fashion.

• Evaluate the quality of arguments 评估论据的质量

  • 1.Clarity 清楚 — Is the argument understandable?

    Was the language easy to understand?

  ​ Was the speaker clear in their diction?

  ​ Was there any vagueness(n. 模糊；含糊；暧昧；茫然) or were there missing elements?

  • 2.Accuracy 准确 — Is the information true and complete?
    Do the conclusions being drawn derive appropriately from the information available?

  • 3.Precision 精确,严谨,细致 — Are there enough details to satisfy the specific requirements?
    Does the action have sufficient features presented to solve the problem?

  • 4.Relevancy 关联,恰当 — Is the argument “on point”(适用,合时宜,合适)?
    In other words, does it relate to the other arguments being made?
Can you see the links between the claims and the data?
Does the argument match the organization being used?

  • 5.Significance 意义 — How important is the argument?
    Are there any statistics to back up the claim(支持这一说法)?
What value is being expressed?
Are the values the same as those the audience holds?
What will happen if we don’t take the advice in the speech?如果我们不接受演讲中的建议会发生什么?

  • 6.Depth 深度 — When evaluating an issue, is there a need to understand other specifics within the issue?

  • 7.Breadth 宽度 — When evaluating an issue, are there other areas of interest 其他感兴趣的领域necessary for understanding the complete picture全貌?

  • 8.Logic 逻辑 — Does the argument make sense? 有意义；讲得通；言之有理
    Do the conclusions come from the analysis and evidence provide?
Do the arguments throughout the speech cohere(vi. 凝聚；连贯；粘着；一致) with each other? 整个演讲的论点彼此连贯吗?
Is there consistency 一致性，连贯性?

  • 9.Fairness 公平,公正 — Is an objective position being taken?是否采取了客观立场?
    Are there other points of view that need to be considered?

• Work out for your voice 锻炼你的声音

  • Avoid Lip-laziness
  • Rule of Pronunciation Linking 发音连读规则
  • Learn to imitate

​ Speech Imitation 言语模仿

U3 Organizing the Speech

• How to make introductory speeches clearly?

  • Don’t cover too much material;
  • Organize speeches with topical order;按主题顺序组织演讲;
  • Make sure each paragraph focuses on a single aspect of the topic. 确保每一段都专注于主题的一个方面

  Dear professors:      
      Good afternoon. My name’s Wang Juan majoring in ideological and political. I’ll be finishing my undergraduate education in QUFU Normal University, located in the hometown of Confucius, and I’m looking forward to pursuing my master degree in your university.
  	 Just as my school’s motto “Never be contented with your study, never be impatient with your teaching” tells me, I have been trying to be an industrious student. With my hard working and my teachers’ guidance, I won the National Endeavor Scholarship, the Endeavor Scholarship of Shandong Province and the first scholarship of my school many times. At the same time, I participated in contest ten times and social practical activities six times and won a lot of wards and certificates. In addition, I have also finished a research project with my peers. These experiences really broaden my view on my future major.
  	Moreover, I’m especially warm-hearted, participating in many activities held by our government. I worked as a volunteer for the Fifth Citizen Sports Meeting of Rizhao and the aid education in remote areas. From these activities, I enjoyed the happiness of making contributions to our society. 
  	What’s more, I have a wide range of interests. I have a passion for reading books, which broadens my horizon. I’m also attracted by listening to music and playing badminton.
  	The major that I hope to pursue for my further education is ideological and political education as my major. My passionate interest in it can explain why I choose it as my major. I read many books related to my major such as the Communist Manifesto and Dialectics of Nature. With the qualified teachers and the great platform for doing researches, Southeast University has become my dream place for years. 
  	I firmly believe, led by the distinguished professors and scholars here, I will go further on ideological and political education. Thank you for your attention.

• How to be creative in developing your topic?

  • mysterious,suspenseful,drama,adventure,danger 神秘、悬疑、戏剧、冒险、危险
  • clorful & descriptive language 丰富多彩的描述性语言
  • witty remarks & jokes 诙谐的评论和笑话
  • funny situations
  • Or: sincere/enthusiastic

• Organizing the Speech

  • Introduction
    • To get the audience’s attention and interest,
    • To create a dramatic or colorful opening, …
    • pose a question;
    • tell a story;
    • make a startling statement;
    • open with a quotation…

  开头部分还应该引导听众对主题内容有一个初步的了解，要对主体部分的讨论要点给出明确清晰的预览陈述。

  • Body

    • What are the most commonly used methods of organization?

    • relate the events in a chronological order / in a topical order 把这些事件按时间顺序/主题顺序联系起来

  Limit the number of main points!Don’t introduce irrelevant information.Make your main points stand out by introducing each with a transition statement.

  限制要点的数量!不要介绍无关的信息。用一个过渡语句来介绍你的主要观点，使其脱颖而出。

  • Conclusion

  • Let the audience know you are about to finish.

  • Reinforce your major theme. 强化你的主题。

  • End on a dramatic, clever, or thought-provoking note.以一个戏剧性的，聪明的，或发人深省的笔记结束。

• Delivering your speech 演讲呈现技巧

  • Speak extemporaneously 即兴演讲
  • Rehearsing the speech 排练演讲
  • Presenting the speech 展示演讲

U4 Selecting a Topic

• Selecting a Topic

  • Topic: the subject of a speech 演讲的主题

• Two Broad Categories of Topics

  (1) Subjects you know a lot about.

Most people speak best about subjects with which they are most familiar.
Think about a topic, draw on your own knowledge and experience.
Think about unusual experiences or special expertise(n. 专门知识；专门技术；专家的意见).

​ (2) Subjects you want to know more about.

Make your speech a learning experience.
★A subject about which you already have some knowledge or expertise but not enough to prepare a speech without doing additional research.
★ A subject you want to explore for the first time. 
★ A subject about which you hold strong opinions and beliefs, such as global warming, media violence, helping people with disabilities, vegetarianism素食 , preserving nature sanctuary禁猎区 . 
no designated topics

• How to choose a topic?

  The topic is determined by: occasion, audience, speaker’s qualifications

  • Brainstorming: a method of generating ideas for speech topics by free association of words and ideas.

  • Procedures:

    • A. Personal inventory 盘点法

    • B. Clustering 聚类法

    • C. Internet search网络搜索

  • Guidelines

    • A. Interesting to us

    • B. Interesting to the audience

    • C. Appropriate to the situation

    • D. Appropriate to the time limit

    • E. Manageable

• Determining the General Purpose

  General purpose: the broad goal of a speech

  • To inform: act as a teacher or lecturer, enhance the knowledge and understanding of your listeners — to give them information that they did not have before.
  • To persuade: act as an advocate or a partisan（虔诚信徒）, win over your listeners to your point of view – go get them to believe something or do something.
  • To entertain: help listeners have a good time by getting them to relax, smile, and laugh.

• Determining the Specific Purpose

Specific purpose: a single infinitive phrase that states precisely what a speaker hopes to accomplish in his or her speech. It should focus on one aspect of a topic.

• ①Write the Purpose Statement as a Full Infinitive原形 Phrase

• ②Express Your Purpose as a Statement, Not as a Question

• ③Avoid Figurative比喻的 Language in Your Purpose Statement

• ④Make Sure Your Specific Purpose Is Not Too Vague模糊的 or General大体的

• ⑤Choose a Specific Purpose That Is Appropriate for Your Audience

• ⑥Choose a Specific Purpose You Can Achieve in the Allotted分配 Time

• Phrasing用短语描述 the Central Idea

  Central idea: a one-sentence statement that sums up or encapsulates（压缩，概述） the major ideas of a speech.

  • Make sure the central idea is not too general.
  • Express the central idea as a full sentence.
  • State the central idea as a declarative sentence, not as a question.
  • Avoid figurative language in the central idea.

• How to write a purpose?

  • -Topic
  • -general purpose
  • -specific purpose
  • -Central idea
  • -Main point

U5 Using Language 1

• Using Language Accurately

• Using Language Clearly

  • ​ Use familiar words ：short, sharp words

  • ​ Choose concrete words

  • ​ Eliminate clutter消除杂波

    • Simple words: before, if, now

    • Cluttered counterparts: prior to, in the eventuality of, at this point in time

      - Suggestions:
      - ​		Throw away unnecessary words.
      - ​		Keep your language lean and lively.
      - ​		Beware of using several words where one or two will do.
      - ​		Avoid flabby phrases

• Using Language Vividly

  • Imagery(比喻，形象化）

    The use of vivid language to create mental images of objects, actions, or ideas.创造物体、动作或思想的心理形象

  • Concrete Words 具体词汇

    - for example:
    - in the end of the speech, many students will say “let's embrace the bright future”
    - “I would be gratified to live a life like this after graduation: after a day's work, I came back to my little apartment, make myself a simple meal, sit down and late practise some yoga, and enjoy a moment of peace by myself. Plain it maybe to some people, but it is the future I'd like to have.”

  • Simile 明喻

    明喻是在本质上不同但又有共同点的事物之间进行的一种明确的比较。它总是包含单词“like”或“as”。

  • Metaphor 暗喻

    暗喻是在本质上不同但又有共同之处的事物之间隐含的比较。

    Imagine the book of your life, its covers, its beginning and end, and your birth and your death. You can only know the moments in between, the moments that make up your life. It makes no sense for you to fear what is outside of those covers, whether before your birth or after your death. And you needn’t worry how long the book is, or whether it is a comic strip or an epic. The only thing that matters is that you make it a good story.

  • Rhythm（节奏）

    The pattern of sound in a speech created by the choice and arrangement of words.

U6 Using Language 2

Using Language Vividly

• Using Language Vividly-Rhythm

  • Parallelism 排比，对偶

    将一组内容相关、结构相似的字、词、句排列在一起。

    With this faith we will be able to work together, to pray together, to struggle together, to go to jail together, to stand up for freedom together, knowing that we will be free one day. 

  • Repetition 反复

    在连续的句子开头或结尾重复使用相同的词或短语。

    Tonight, HIV marches resolutely toward AIDS in more than a million American homes, littering its pathway with the bodies of the young, young men, young women, young parents, and young children. We must imagine greatly, dare greatly, and act greatly.

  • Alliteration 头韵

    在相邻或相近的单词中重复使用同一个辅音做开头音。

    Time and again these men and women struggled and sacrificed. We remain the most prosperous, powerful nation on Earth. With old friends and former foes, we will work tirelessly to lessen the nuclear threat, and roll back the specter of a warming planet.

  • Antithesis 对仗

    以平行结构将相对的观点放在一起。

    That's one small step for man; one giant leap for  mankind. 

• Using Language Appropriately

  • Appropriateness to the topic、speaker、occasion、audience

• Using Language Inclusively

U7 Supporting Your Ideas

• Supporting Your Ideas

  • Presenting the central ideas/purpose
  • Conclusion

• Two criteria of choosing supporting materials:

  • Authority/expertise 权威/专业知识
  • Accuracy

• Basic Kinds of Supporting Materials

• Examples (specific, personal, lively)

• Statistics

• Testimony 证据

• Examples (specific, personal, lively)

  • Brief Exampls 简要事例

  • Specific Instances / Specific Cases

  • Extended Examples 扩展的例子

    • narratives—stories 叙事

    • illustrations 例证

    • anecdotes 趣闻轶事

  • Hypothetical Examples 假设的例子

    • “suppose that”

    • “imagine that”

    • “what if”

Tips for Using Examples
(1) Make examples vivid and richly textured(生动且层次丰富）
(2) Reinforce examples with statistics or testimony （运用数据或证言强化事例）

• Statistics / Numerical Data

  • Single Statistics

  • Multiple Statistics

Tips for Using Statistics
(1) Use representative statistics 代表性的数据
(2) Identify the sources of statistics
(3) Use the statistics from the reliable source
(4) Round off complicated statistics 复杂的统计数字四舍五入
(5) Explain the statistics
(6) Use visual aids to clarify statistics 使用视觉辅助工具来澄清统计数据

• Testimony 证词，证言；证据，证明

  Testimony is about other people’s words or ideas.

  Quotations or paraphrases used to support a point.

  • Expert Testimony
  • Peer Testimony

Tips for Using Testimony
(1) Decide whether to quote or paraphrase 决定是引用还是转述
(2) Quote or paraphrase accurately
(3) Use testimony from qualified source
(4) Use testimony from unbiased source
(5) Identify the people you quote or paraphrase

U8 英语写作之常见句法错误

1. Run-on Sentences（流水句）
   Def: A run-on sentence is a sentence in which two or more independent clauses (that is, complete sentences) are joined with no punctuation or conjunction.
   指错误地将两个独立分句合写在一个句子里面，没有正确地用标点或连词加以分离。

   ​ (1) Comma Splice （逗号使用错误）
   逗号使用错误相当于中文写作中常出现的“一逗到底”的现象，这种现象在英文写作中是不允许的。具体表现为使用逗号但是并没有并列连词将两个独立分句写在一个句子里.

   ​ (2) Fused Sentence（融合句）
   根本不使用标点把两个独立分句合写在一个句子里。

2. Sentence Fragments （句子碎片；零散句）
   Def: A fragment is only a piece of a complete thought. It can be phrases or dependent clauses or any incomplete word group that begins with capital letter and ends with a period, question mark, or exclamation point but is grammatically incomplete.
   一般是指某句子看上去样子像个句子，但它从语法上讲并不是一个句子，是模仿真的句子的假句子。
   一个完整的句子最基本的要素就是主语(a subject) +动词(a verb)+完整意思(a complete thought)

U9

an imaginary story   一个虚构的故事
illustration 插画 插图 例证 说明  
fable 寓言；谎言，无稽之谈；神话，传说 
hypothetical example 假设的例子 
simulated example  模拟的例子
Analogies  类比；类推法
causal reasoning  因果推理
emotional appeals  
statistics 情感诉求；感性诉求

U10 Main Points

• Three basic parts of a speech

  • Introduction
  • Body
  • Conclusion

  外包装 + 内核 + 外包装

• Listeners demand coherence.与听众需求一致性

• Strategic organization

• Using a clear and specific method of speech organization

• The process of organizing the body begins when you determine the main points.组织正文的过程从你确定要点开始

  • Select them carefully;仔细选择他们
  • Phrase them precisely; 短语精确
  • Arrange them strategically.战略安排他们

• Establish the main points 确立要点

  • Rule 1: Sometimes the main points are evident from your specific purpose statement.

    ​ 有时候，从你的特定目的陈述中，要点是显而易见的。

    Specific Purpose: 
    	To inform my audience about the goals, structure, and member  states of the United States.
    Central Idea:
    	Composed of five administrative bodies and 192 member states, the United Nations is devoted to promoting international cooperation.
    Main Points: 
    	I. The overarching（主要的） goal of the United Nations is to promote international cooperation.
    	II. The United Nations is divided into five administrative bodies.
    	III. The United Nations is made up of 192 member states.

  • Rule 2: Even if the main points are not stated expressly in your specific purpose, they can be easy to project from it.

    ​ 即使在你的具体目的中没有明确说明要点，它们也可以很容易地投射出来。

    Specific purpose: 
    	To inform my audience about the four events in women’s gymnastics.
    Central Idea: 
    	The four events in women’s gymnastics are floor exercise, vault, balance beam, and uneven parallel bars.
    Main Points: 
    	I. Floor exercise combines dancing, acrobatics, and tumbling.
    	II. Vault features explosive power and dramatic midair maneuvers.
    	III. Balance beam requires precise routines and perfect coordination.
    	IV. Uneven parallel bars demand strength, flexibility, and agility.

• Organizing the Main Points 组织要点

  The order in which you will present your main points depends on your topic, your purpose, and your audience.

  • Patterns of Organization 语篇组织模式

    • Chronological order 时间顺序

      Specific Purpose: 
      	To inform my audience how the Great Wall of China was built.
      Central Idea: The Great Wall of China was built in three major stages.
      Main Points: 
       	I. Building of the Great Wall began during the Qin Dynasty of 221-206 B.C.
      	II. New sections of the Great Wall were added during the Han Dynasty of 206 B.C.-220 A.D.
      	III. The Great Wall was completed during the Ming Dynasty of 1368-1644.

    • Spatial order 空间顺序

      Specific purpose: 
      	To inform my audience about the structure of a typhoon.
      Central Idea: A typhoon is made up of three parts of going from inside to outside.
      Main points: 
      	I. At the center of a typhoon is the calm,  cloud-free eye.
      	II. Surrounding the eye is the eyewall, a dense ring of clouds that produces the most intense wind and rainfall.
      	III. Rotating around the eyewall are large bands of clouds and precipitation called spiral（螺旋状的） rain bands（降雨带）.

    • Problem-solution order 问题解决的顺序

      ​ a method of speech organization in which the first main point deals with the existence of a problem and the second main point presents a solution to the problem.

      Specific Purpose: 
      	To persuade my audience that tougher measures are needed to control illegal selling of antiques.
      Central Idea: 
      	Illegal selling of antiques is a serious problem that requires a combination of government action and individual awareness.
      Main points: 
      	I. Illegal selling of antiques is a serious problem in parts of China.
      	II. The problem can be solved by a combination of government action and 
      individual awareness. 
      Most appropriate for persuasive speeches.

    • Topical order 话题顺序

      	Your specific purpose is “ To inform my audience of the achievements of Leonardo da Vinci”.
      Chronologically 按年代地 从历史上: his achievements in each stage of his career.
      Topically 总论地: divide his achievements into categories. 
      Specific Purpose: To inform my audience about the achievements of Leonardo da Vinci.
      
      Central Idea: 
      	Leonardo da  Vinci was accomplished as a painter, an inventor, and as astronaut.
      Main Points: 
      	I. As a painter, Leonardo da Vinci produced the Mona Lisa, the Last Supper, and other masterpieces.
      	II. As an inventor, he drew plans for an parachute and a flying machine.
      	III. As an astronomer, he concluded that the earth revolves around the sun.

    • Causal Division 因果关系

      • cause to effect
      • effect to cause

    • Pro-con division 利弊关系

      • pro
      • con

• Tips for Preparing the Main Points 准备要点的技巧

  • Limit the number of main points.

  • Keep main points separate.

  • Try to use the same pattern of wording for main points.

  • Balance the amount of time devoted to main points.

  • Make the Main Points a Whole Unity

    Topic: “Apple” has changed the world.
    Specific purpose: To inform the audience that three apples have changed the world.
    Main points:
    	The apple of morality, eaten by Adam and Eve, help people to differentiate good from evil.
    	The apple of science, discovered by Newton, taught people to explore the truth.
    	The apple of creativity, created by Steve Jobs, changed people’s ways of communication and ways of life.

• Supporting Materials

  ​ the materials used to support a speaker’s ideas. The three major kinds of supporting materials are examples, statistics, and testimony.

  • Examples
    • Brief examples
    • Extended examples
    • Factual examples 客观事实引用
    • Hypothetical examples
  • Statistics
  • Testimony
    • Expert testimony
    • Peer testimony

• Connectives 连接符 连接词 连词 联结词

  • Types of connectives

    • transitions 关联词

    • internal previews 内部提示

    • internal summaries 内部总结

    • signposts 标识语

      ​ Now that we have a clear understanding of the problem, let me share the solution with you.
      ​ We have spoken so far of Guan Yu’s skill as a warrior, but above all it is his honor and righteousness that make him a mythic figure in Chinese history.
      ​ Keeping these points in mind about sign language, let’s return to the sentence I started with.
      [Internal Summary]: Let’s sum up what we have discussed so far. First, we have seen that
      Li Shizhen’s classic work Bencao Gangmu divides the substances from minerals into four
      categories. Second, we have seen that it divides the substances from animals into six
      categories. [Transition]: Now let us see how it divides the substances from plants.

U11 Beginning and Ending the Speech

Introduce

• Introduce the topic and the main points

  例1：Today I will talk with you about

  ※the causes of high blood pressure;

  ※ the strain high blood pressure is putting on China’s health care system

  ※ and what people can do to reduce the likelihood of having high blood pressure.

  • 第一，简短。切忌冗长、信息量大的内容介绍，加重听众的记忆负担。
  • 第二，表达方式富有变化。尽量不要采用报幕式的方法展示演讲内容。可以适当使用修辞、幽默等语言技巧，使语言形式更加活泼。

• Get Attention and Interest

  • A: Relate the topic to the audience. 将话题与听众联系起来。
  • B: State the importance of your topic. 陈述主题的重要性。
  • C: Startle the audience. 使听众震惊
  • D: Arouse the curiosity of the audience.
  • E: Question the audience.
  • F: Begin with a quotation.
  • G: Tell a story.
  • H: Using unexpected props 利用意想不到的道具

• Attention grabber

  • tell a personal story

    ​ true life experience, real, sincere

    As a famous saying goes:

    “Tell me a fact and I’ll learn. Tell me a truth and I’ll believe. Tell me a story and I’ll remember.”

  • offer thought-provoking questions 提供发人深省的问题

    ​ Why? How? What if?

  • making dramatic statement

    • startling statement 惊人的声明
    • using shocking statistics 用令人震惊的统计数据

  • start your speech with an intresting quotation

• Create a Positive Relationship with the Audience

  Especially important when：

  The speaker is controversial or advocates an unpopular position；

  In cross-cultural communication.

  尤其重要:

  演讲者是有争议的或主张不受欢迎的立场;

  在跨文化交际

• Establish Credibility

  Your credibility can be based on research, firsthand knowledge, or some combination of the two.

  你的可信度可以建立在研究、第一手知识或两者结合的基础上。

Tips for the Introduction
(1) Keep the introduction relatively brief.
(2) Be on the lookout for possible introductory materials as you do your research.
在你做研究的时候，要注意可能的介绍性材料。
(3) Be creative in devising your introduction. 在自我介绍的设计上要有创意。
(4) Don’t worry about the exact wording of your introduction until you have finished the body of the speech.
(5) Don’t apologize in your introduction.
(6) Work out your introduction in detail.
(7) Don’t start talking too soon. 不要太早开口。

Conclusion

• A conclusion can serve the following functions.
  • To create a sense of completeness to the speech
  • to sum up
  • To win the audience for the last time
  • To reinforce our points 加强我们的观点

A conclusion can be achieved in the following ways.

• Summarizing your speech 总结要点

总结要点是最常见的一种结尾方式，在信息性演讲中使用尤为频繁。演讲者通过重申演讲的

中心思想和主要观点来帮助听众有条理地总结演讲内容，使听众对演讲内容留下全局印象。

• End with a quotation

• Make a dramatic statement

• Refer to the introduction

  演讲的结构不是线性的，而是环状的。鉴于此，演讲者可以在结尾时有意识地将结束语与开篇语呼应，从而达到语篇流畅、统一的效果

• Issuing an appeal 呼吁行动式

  劝说性演讲中较为常用。演讲者不仅要听众同意和接受自己的观点，在结束时还要呼吁听众采取行动，并和听众一起想象采取行动后的美好未来，已达到规劝听众并让他们采取自由行动的目的。

Tips for Conclusion

(1) Keep an eye for possible concluding materials as you research and develop the speech.
(2) Conclude with a bang, not a whimper.
(3) Don’t be long-winded. The conclusion makes up no more than 5-10 percent of your speech.
(4) Don’t end with an apology. Statements

U12 Outlining the Speech

• Preparation outline: a detailed outline developed during the process of speech preparation that includes the title, specific purpose, central idea, introduction, main points, subpoints, connectives, conclusion, and bibliography of a speech. 准备提纲:在准备演讲的过程中形成的详细的提纲，包括演讲的标题、具体目的、中心思想、引言、要点、子要点、连接词、结论和参考书目。

  • Guidelines for the Preparation Outline

    ​ 1. State the specific purpose and central idea.陈述具体目的和中心思想

    ​ 2. Label the introduction, body, and conclusion.标注引言、正文和结论

    ​ 3. Use a consistent pattern of symbolization and indentation（缩格）.使用一致的符号和缩进模式

    ​ 4. State main points and subpoints in full sentences.用完整的句子陈述要点和次要要点

    ​ 5. Label transitions, internal summaries, and internal previews.标签转换、内部摘要和内部预览

    ​ 6. Attach a bibliography.附上参考书目

    ​ 7. Give your speech a title. 给你的演讲起个标题

• Speaking outline: a brief outline used to jog a speaker’s memory during the presentation of a speech.It helps you remember what you want to say. A condensed version of your preparation outline.

  ​ It should contain key words or phrases, essential statistics and quotations.

  ​ It should also include cues to direct and sharpen your delivery.

  • Guidelines for the Speaking Outline

    ​ 1. Follow the visual framework used in the preparation outline.

    ​ 2. Make sure the outline is legible（易读的）.

    ​ 3. Keep the outline as brief as possible.

    ​ 4 .Give yourself cues for delivering the speech.

U13 Speaking to Inform

• Types of informative speeches

  ​ (1) Speeches about objects

  ​ (2) Speeches about processes

  ​ (3) Speeches about events

  ​ (4) Speeches about concepts

• Speeches about processes explain how something is made, how something is done, or how something works

  SMART---an acronym 
  S (specific goal): What is the goal of the new project you want to start.
  M (measurable): List all the features you need to accomplish to start the project.
  A (action): When will you start.
  R (realistic): Is the project small enough to finish it in the specified time frame.
  T (time): In the beginning of July 2020 everything should be fine.

• Organizing Informative Speeches

  ​ chronological; spatial; topical

Tips for Informative Speeches

1. Don’t overestimate what the audience knows.
2. Don’t be too technical.
3. Personalize your ideas.
4. Avoid abstractions.
5. Be creative.
6. Avoid boring the audience with familiar information.

Speech Evaluation Criteria

• E-Excellent
• G-Good
• A-Average
• F-Fair
• P-Poor

Introduction
- Gain attention and interest
- Introduce the topic clearly
- Establish credibility
- Effectively preview main points

Body
- Main points are clear
- Organization well-planned
- Main points fully supported
- Sources cited and indentified clearly
- Language clear, accurate, appropriate
- Connectives used effectively
- Visual aids effective

Conclusion
- Prepared audience for an ending
- Reinforced central idea
- Ended on a strong note

Delivery
- Began speech without rushing
- Maintain appropriate eye contact
- Avoided distracting mannerism  避免分散注意力的特殊习惯
- Articulated words clearly
- Used pauses effectively
- Used vocal variety to add impact
- Communicated enthusiasm for topic
- Speech presented extemporaneously  即兴演讲
- Visual aids clear and visible, presented well
- Departed from lectern without rushing

U14 Speaking to Persuade

• The psychology of persuasion

• Target audience

• Three major kinds of persuasive speeches

• The methods of persuasion.

  • Building Credibility

  • Using evidence

  • Reasoning

  • Appealing to emotions

Methods you can use to hit the target in the following three kinds of persuasive speeches

• speeches on questions of fact

  • A question of fact means a question about the truth or falsity of an assertion

    ​ 有关事实的说服性演讲的目的是说服听众同意演讲者对某一事实真伪的判断。

  - Specific purpose: To persuade my audience that Marilyn Monroe did not die of suicide.
  - Main Points: 
  - A. Medical check proves no sign of hypnotics' overdosing in Monroe.
  - B. Evidence and witnesses on the scene suggested it  was more of a murder crime.
  - C. Rumor went that Monroe had complicated relationship with the Kennedy Brothers.

• speeches on questions of value

  • Question of value means a question about the worth, rightness, morality, and so forth of an idea or action.

    ​ 价值问题指的是关于一种思想或行为的价值、正确性、道德性等问题

  Whenever you give a speech on a question of value, be sure to give special thought to the standards for your value judgment

  • 每当你就价值问题发表演讲时，一定要特别考虑你的价值判断标准
  • 组织关于价值问题的演讲
  • 最常见的方法是把你的第一个要点用于建立你的价值判断的标准，然后把你的第二个要点用于将这些标准应用到你演讲的主题上。

  Specific purpose: To persuade my audience the jogging is the ideal workout option.
  Main points:
  1. An ideal workout option should meet three major standards.
     A. It should be good for one's health.
     B. It should be economical.
     C. It should be flexible.
  2. Jogging meets all three standards for an ideal workout option.
     A. Jogging offers multiple health benefits.
     B. Jogging does not cost any money.
     C. Jogging can be done anywhere, anytime.

• speeches on questions of policy.

  • Question of policy means a question about whether a specific course of action should or should not be taken.Types of speeches on questions of policy include speeches to gain passive agreement and speeches to gain immediate action.

    ​ 政策问题指的是某一具体行动方针是否应该采取的问题。关于政策问题的演讲类型包括获得被动同意的演讲和获得立即行动的演讲。

  • Speeches to gain passive agreement(以获得听众认可为目标的演讲）

    ​ Persuasive speeches in which the speaker’s goal is to convince the audience that a given policy is desirable without encouraging the audience to take action in support of the policy.

  ​ 说服性演讲，演讲者的目标是说服听众某一政策是可取的，但不鼓励听众采取行动支持该政策。

  To persude my audience that public speaking should be a required course for English majors.

  • Speeches to gain immediate action(以促使听众立即行动为目标的演讲）

    ​ Persuasive speeches in which the speaker’s goal is to convince the audience to take action in support of a given policy.

    ​ 说服性演讲，演讲者的目标是说服听众采取行动支持某一特定政策。

    To persuade my audience to donate blood on a regular basis.

Organizing Speeches on Questions of Policy

• problem-solution order 问题解决方案的顺序
  A method of organizing persuasive speeches in which the first main point deals with the existence of a problem and the second main point presents a solution to the problem

  ​ 第一个要点说明问题的存在，第二个要点提出问题的解决方案

• problem-cause-solution order
  A method of organizing persuasive speeches in which the first main point identifies a problem,the second main point analyzes the causes of the problem,and the third main point presents a solution to the problem.
  第一个要点确定问题，第二个要点分析问题的原因，第三个要点提出问题的解决方案

• comparative advantages order 比较优势的顺序
  A method of organizing persuasive speeches in which each main point explains why a speaker’s solution to a problem is preferable to other proposed solutions

  ​ 每个要点都说明为什么演讲者对某个问题的解决方案比其他提出的解决方案更可取

• motivated sequence （动机序列法）

  A method of organizing persuasive speeches that seek immediate action.要求立即采取

  • attention(引起听众的注意）
    need（解释解决问题的必要性）
    satisfaction（提出解决问题的办法）
    visualization（形象地描述采用上述办法的好处）
    action（号召听众立即采取行动）

Methods of persuasion
1.Building credibility (ethos）

Credibility are affected by competence and character 信誉受能力和品格的影响
Explain your competence
Establish common ground with your audience 与你的听众建立共同立场
show respect for your listeners
deliver your speeches fluently, expressively and with conviction 演讲要流利、有表现力、有说服力

2 .Using evidence（logos)

Specific evidence is more persuasive .
Novel evidence is more persuasive if evidence is new to the audience.
Evidence from credible sources is more persuasive.

3.Reasoning
The process of drawing a conclusion on the basis of evidence

​ (1)（归纳论证）Reasoning from specific instances
particular facts to a general conclusion 用具体的事实来概括结论

​ (2)（演绎论证）Reasoning from principle
move from the general to the specific 从一般到具体

​ (3)（因果论证）Causal reasoning

seeks to establish the relationship between causes and effects 试图建立因果关系

​ (4)（类比论证）Analogical reasoning

Compare two similar cases and infers the truth of both 比较两个相似的案例，并推断两者的真相

四种常见的推理

• 根据具体事例推理

  避免轻率结论/用词准确，避免一概而论/利用数字和材料支撑

• 根据原理推理

  从普遍原理走向特殊的结论的过程

  原理（大前提）必须准确/推理要有相的说服力

• 根据因果推理

  避免两者仅仅时间有联系，而非因果/不要简化为单一事件起因

• 类比推理

  类比实例必须是可比较的/类比的角度和立场具有多样性

fallacies you should guard against 常见的谬误
(1) red herring 红鲱鱼
引入完全不相干的物体，使听众从正在讨论的问题中走神
(2) ad hominem 对人不对事
转而攻击人而不是争议之中的问题
除非这个的性格和诚实水平足够成为有效议题

​ (3) bandwagon 从众效应
如果某项是受欢迎的，那么它一定是最好的、正确的等等

​ (4) slippery slope 滑坡谬误
只有走错了一步就不可避免的延续下去

4.Appealing to emotions（pathos)

U15 Speaking on Special Occasions

• Speeches of Introducation 引见致词

  A speech of introduction is an address that introduces the main speaker to the auience.

• Tips:

  • Be brief: 2-3minutes
  • Make sure your remakrs are completely accurate
  • Adapt your remarks to the occasion
  • Adapt your remarks to the main speaker
  • Adpat your remarks to the Audience

• Speeches of Acceptance 获奖致词

  A speech to give thanks for a gift or an award. When giving such a speech, you thank the people who are bestowing the award recognize the people who helped you gain it.

  致谢:为礼物或奖品而致谢的演说在做这样的演讲时，你要感谢颁奖的人，感谢帮助你获奖的人。

• Speeches of Toast 祝酒词

  A speech of saying a fews words of greeting, celebartion, or thanks in conjunction with a meal or reception.

  祝词:在宴会或招待会上说几句问候、庆祝或感谢的话

• Some toasts are very brief:

  • – a few sentences of welcome
  • ​ – wishes for good health
  • ​ – Joyful marriage
  • ​ – a prosperous career

• Commemorative Speeches 纪念性演讲

  • Commemorative speeches are speeches of praise or celebration.

  • Your aim is to pay tribute to a person, a group of people, an institution, or an idea.

  • Your fundamental purpose is to inspire the audience:

    ​ to arouse and heighten their appreciation of or admiration for the person, institution, or idea.

    纪念演讲是赞美或庆祝的演讲。

    你的目标是向一个人、一群人、一个机构或一个想法致敬。

    你的根本目的是激励听众:激发并提高他们对这个人、机构或想法的欣赏或钦佩